Preservation of internal security in Namibia: Challenges for the Namibian Police Force
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v11i10.2153Keywords:
Constitution; Internal Insecurity; Namibian Police Force; StakeholdersAbstract
This study argues that preservation of internal security of Namibia should not be the primary responsibility of only the Namibian Police Force (NamPol). The issue of security has been the subject of interest throughout human existence and still reserves its principal occupation in the public domain. However, the challenges of insecurities and increased threats to human existence domestically and globally have triggered incessantly renewed security inquiry by scholars, security practitioners, politicians and public administrators. The study employed a qualitative approach; interviews were used to purposively collect data from 20 participants which comprised of the heads of directorates, the regional commanders in the Namibian Police Force, Legal Assistance Centre, NamRights, Namibian Defence Force, Namibian Correctional Service and Windhoek Municipal Police. The data was analysed using thematic analysis, which led to the development of the Framework for Performing Internal Security [FPIS] model. The findings indicate that due to the nature of factors linked to insecurities, such as technology, porous borders, political factors, environmental factors, inequality, poverty, unemployment and lack of provision for essential services, the Namibian police alone cannot preserve internal security effectively. As such, the study recommends that constitutional amendments to incorporate other stakeholders in the preservation Namibia’s internal security.
Downloads
References
Aborisade, R., & Obileye, A. (2017). Systematic brutality, torture and abuse of human rights by the Nigerian police: accounts of inmates of Ogun State prisons. The Nigerian Journal of Anthropol Social 15(1),1–16 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36108/NJSA/7102/51(0110)
Agbeko, M. (2021). Understanding cyber safety behaviour among teenagers in Ghana. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security 19(6),1-7. https://www. academia. edu/ download/68222309
Ajayi, E.F.G. (2016). Challenges to enforcement of cyber-crimes laws and policy. Journal of Internet and Information Systems, 6(1),1-12. doi:10 5897/JIIS2015.0089. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/JIIS2015.0089
Akinlabi, O. (2020). Citizens’ accounts of police use of force and its implication for trust in the police. Journal of Crime Justice, 43(2),145–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0735 648X. 2019.1650798 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2019.1650798
Akinlabi. O. (2017). Do the police really protect and serve the public? Police deviance and public cynicism towards the law in Nigeria. Criminal Crime Justice, 17(2),158–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895816659906 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895816659906
Akinyemi, O. (2019). Porous borders and increasing human trafficking in West Africa: issues and challenges. International Journal of Social Science Research, 7(2), 1-52. doi: http.doi.org/10.5296/ijssr.v7i2.15537 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5296/ijssr.v7i2.15537
Albert, C., Baez, A., & Rutland, J. (2021). Human security as biosecurity: Reconceptualising national security threats in the time of COVID-19. Politics and the Life Sciences, 40(1), 83-105. doi:10.1017/pls.2021.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/pls.2021.1
Amnesty International. (2020). Policing the pandemic: human rights violations in the enforcement of Covid 19 measures in Europe. Amnesty International Ltd, London.
Aremu, J.O. (2018). Conflicts in Africa: meaning, causes, impact and solution. African Research Review, 4(4);doi:10.4314/afrrev.v4i4.69251 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v4i4.69251
Aring, M., Reichardt, O., Katjizeu, E.M. Luyanda, B. & Hulke, C. (2021). Collective capacity to aspire? Aspirations and livelihood strategies in the Zambezi region, Namibia. The European Journal of Development Research, 33(2021), 933–950). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-021-00412-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-021-00412-1
Barbary, A.E. (2019). Analysing Climate-forced Urbanisation in Mongolia. Retrieved: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Angus-Barbary2/publication/344966370Understandi ng_Climate-forced_Urbanisation_in_Mongolia/links/5f9b72a792851c14bcf2d486/
Bélanger, M.E., & Schimmelfennig, F. (2021). Politicisation and rebordering in EU enlargement: membership discourses in European parliaments. Journal of European public policy, 28(3), 407-426. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2021.1881589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1881584
Bello, P.O. & Olutola, A.A. (2022). Effective Response to Human Trafficking in South Africa: Law as a Toothless Bulldog’, SAGE Open. doi: 10.1177/21582440211069379. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211069379
Bjarnesen, M. (2021). Agents of urban (in) security: contextualising the banning of political vigilantism in Ghana. Journal of the British Academy, 9(11), 19-39. doi: https://doi.org/10.5871 /jba/009 s11.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/009s11.019
Carlson, C.E., Chen, J., Chang, M., Batsukh, A., Toivgoo, A., Riedel, M. & Witte, S.S. (2012). Reducing intimate and paying partner violence against women who exchange sex in Mongolia: Results from a randomised clinical trial. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(10), 1911–1931. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862 60511431439 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511431439
Caulfield, J. (2019). How to do thematic analysis. https://www.scribbr.com/ methodology/thematic- analysis/ [Accessed June 22, 2021].
Chilunjika, A. & Gumede, N. (2021). Climate change and human security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sabinet African Journal, 2021(1) https://doi.org/10.31920/2516-5305/v2021sin1a2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31920/2516-5305/v2021sin1a2
Chonka, P. & Bakonyi, J. (2021). Precarious technoscapes: forced mobility and mobile connections at the urban margins. Journal of the British Academy, 9(s11),67-91. https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/009s11.067 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/009s11.067
Clarke, V. & Braun, V., 2016. Thematic analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 297-298 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262613
Commission of African Union. (2018). Promoting the continental agenda of security, justice and development. Draft Concept Note. https://issat.dcaf.ch/sqi/ 137460/2818132. [Accessed February 19, 2021].
Creswell, J.W., & Poth, C.N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications
Danane, Z.J. (2022). Integrated border management as a vector to combat illegal immigration in Mozambique. Problems of Management in the 21st Century, 16(2), 74-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33225/pmc/21.16.74
Drent, M., Dinnissen, R.; van Ginkel, B.; Hogeboom, H. & Homan, K. (2015). The relationship between external and internal security. Clingendael Strategic Monitor Project. https://www.clingendae.nl/sites/default/files/The%20relationship%20between%20external %20and%20internal%20 security. [Accessed April 19, 2022].
Du Plooy-Cilliers, F, Davis, C & Bezuidenhout, R. (2014). Research matters. Cape Town: Juta
Eichstaedt, J.C., Sherman, G.T., Giorgi, S., Roberts, S.O., Reynolds, M.E., Ungar, L.H. & Guntuku, S.C., (2021). The emotional and mental health impact of the murder of George Floyd on the US population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(39), p.e2109139118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109139118
Feeney, B.C., & Collins, N.L. (2015). A new look at social support: A theoretical perspective on thriving through relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(2), 113-147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314544222 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314544222
Freeman, R., Wicks, A., & Parmar, B. (2004). Stakeholder theory and the corporate objective revisited. Organization Science, 15(3), p. 364-369. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1040.0066
Freeman, R.E. & Reed, D.L. (1983). Stockholders and stakeholders: A new perspective on corporate governance. California management review, 25(3), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.2307/41165018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/41165018
Freeman, R.E., Harrison, J.S., Wicks, A.C., Parmar, B. & de Colle, S. (2010). Stakeholder theory: The state of the art. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815768
Hans, L., Hong, S.Y., Ashipala, L.S., Bikinesi, L., Hamunime, N., Kamangu, J.W. & Dziuban, E.J. (2021). Maintaining ART services during COVID-19 border closures: lessons learned in Namibia. The Lancet HIV, 8(1), e7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(20)30334-9
Hawkins, D.S. (2021). After Philando, I had to take a sick day to recover: Psychological distress, trauma and police brutality in the Black community. Health communication,1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1913838
Haynes, M.L. (2020). It Starts at Home: Internal Actions Police Agencies Can Take to Improve Staffing. Naval Postgraduate School. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1126924. [Accessed March 22, 2021].
Hobbes, T. 1996. Leviathan Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Hodgkins, S., Rundle-Thiele, S., Knox, K. & Kim, J. (2019). Utilising stakeholder theory for social marketing process evaluation in a food waste context. Journal of Social Marketing, 9(3), pp. 270-287. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-12-2017-0088 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-12-2017-0088
Hoffmann, K. & Verweijen, J. (2019). Rebel rule: A governmentality perspective. African Affairs, 118(471), 352-374. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/ady039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/ady039
Holt, G. & Hughes, D. (2021). A study using semi-structured interview and delphi survey to explore the barriers and enabling factors that in?uence access and utilisation of weight management services for people living with morbid obesity: a patient and professional perspective. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 34, 215–223. https://doi.org/10 .1111 /jhn.12832 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12832
Iroanya, R.B. (2018). The threat of international terrorism to the SADC region. (In Khadiagala, G., & Deleglise, D. eds. Southern African Security Review 2017, 105-125. Maputo: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Johansen, A. (2017). Future trends in historical research on policing: Towards global and interdisciplinary perspectives. Crime, History & Societies, 21(2), 113–121 https://doi.org/10. 4000/chs.1826 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/chs.1826
Kalili, L. (2019). Ownership, rights and access to minerals in Namibia: a contemporary legal perspective. [Master thesis]: The University of Namibia. https://repository.unam.edu.na/ handle/11070/2871
Kalkman, J. (2019). The expanding domestic role of western armed forces and its implications. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 2016(1), 1–7 https://doi.org/ 10.1515/jhsem-2018-0052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/jhsem-2018-0052
Kiger, M.E., & Varpio, L. (2020). Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131. Medical Teacher, 42(8), 846-854. doi: 10.1080/0142159X. 2020.1755030 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2020.1755030
Kihato, C.W. (2009). Migration, gender and urbanisation in Johannesburg (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from; http://hdl.handle.net/10500/2693
Krylovas, A., Dadelien?, R., Kosareva, N., & Dadelo, S. (2019). Comparative Evaluation and Ranking of the European Countries Based on the Interdependence between Human Development and Internal Security Indicators. Mathematics, 7(3), 293. doi:10.3390 /math7030293 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/math7030293
Lakitsch, M. (2018). Lessons from the State of Nature: A Hobbesian contribution to the critical debate on liberal peacebuilding. Journal of International and Global Studies, 10(1). link.gale. com/apps/doc/A627070431/AONE?u=anon~358a1221& sid=googleScholar&xid=3de00ca3.
Li, J. (2021). Cybercrime in the Philippines: A case study of national security. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 12 (11): 4224-4231 https://turcomat.org/index.php/ turkbilmat/article/view/6550. [Accessed August 23, 2021].
Lindstaedt, N. (2021). Human security in disease and disaster. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003128809 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003128809
Mabuku, K.K. (2022). Assessing the impact of floods on food security in the Zambezi region: a case study of the Ikaba Area. [Unpublished Master thesis]: University of Namibia.
Mamokhere, J. & Chauke, K.R. (2020). The multiplicity of challenges faced by South African borders: a case of Limpopo province. Journal of Public Affairs, 20(3): https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2123 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2123
Minnaar, A. (2020). ‘Gone phishing’: the cynical and opportunistic exploitation of the Coronavirus pandemic by cybercriminals. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology, 33(3), 28-53.
Monaghan, R. (2020). Cybercrime response capabilities and capacity: an evaluation of local law enforcement’s response to a complex problem. [Master thesis]:Naval Postgraduate School. https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=850258
Moser, C.O., (2021). Mothers, daughters, fathers and sons: intergenerational family social capital and inequalities in Guayaquil, Ecuador. Environment and Urbanisation, 33(1), 193-210. https://doi.org/10.1177/09562478209590 26 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247820959026
Mukherji, P. & Albon, D. (2018). Research methods in early childhood: An introductory guide. Sage.
Namabanda, E.M. (2019). Livelihood challenges in a rural growth point: the case of Ondobe, Namibia (Doctoral dissertation, University of the Free State). https://scholar.ufs.ac.za/ handle/11660/10297[Accessed April 15, 2022].
Nangolo, F.J. (2020). Contribution of the joint operations on crime prevention in Namibia – a case of Wanaheda police station area of jurisdiction in Khomas region. [Master thesis, University of Rwanda]. http://dr.ur.ac.rw/bitstream/handle/123456789/1083/ NANGOLO %20Frednard%20J..pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Accessed: 07.09.2022]
Nkrumah, D.O., Ofosuhene, E.Y. & Gyasi, K. (2020). COVID-19 Pandemic and Presidential directives: the brutalities of the Ghana Police Service. African Journal of Criminology and Victimology, 33(2), 1-27. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-crim-v33-n3-a2
Olutola, A.A. (2012). Long term crime prevention and the criminal justice systems of Nigeria and South Africa: A Hopeless Hope? Acta Criminologica. Southern African Journal of Criminology, CRIMSA 2011 Conference Special Edition, 2012(2): 17-30.Oluyemi, O.A. (2020). The military dimension of Niger delta crisis and its implications on Nigeria national security. Sage Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/215824402 0922 895
Ortiz, I., Burke, S., Berrada, M. & Cortés, H. (2022). World protests: a study of key protest issues in the 21st century (p. 185). Springer Nature. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-88513-72014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7
Parmar, B.L., Freeman, R.E., Harrison, J.S., Wicks, A.C., Purnell, L., & De Colle, S. (2010). Stakeholder theory: The state of the art. The Academy of Management Annals, 4(1), 403-445. https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520.2010.495581 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520.2010.495581
Paul, P. & Aithal, P.S. (2018). Cybercrime: challenges, issues, recommendation and suggestion in Indian context. International Journal of Advanced Trends in Engineering and Technology, 3(1), 59-62. 2456 – 4664 https://ssrn.combstract =3122318.
Peterside, Z.B. (2014). The military and internal security in Nigeria: challenges and prospects. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(27):1301–1307. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n27p1301
Qwabe, T.T., Maluleke, W., & Olutola, A. A. (2022). Exploring the Nature of School Violence in the Selected Public High Schools: Case Study of Jozini Settlement, Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review. Vol 5. Issue 2. pp 116-137. http://dx.doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v5i4.271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v5i4.271
Rakowski, T. (2021). Urbanisation of the Steppe. Sedentarisation, Mobility, and Collective Business-Making Among the Torghuts in Post-transitional Mongolia. Prace Etnograficzne, 49(1-2),1-20.https://www.ejournals.eu/Prace-Etnograficzne/2021/49-1-2-2021/art/19332 [Accessed January 26, 2021]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4467/22999558.PE.21.002.14124
Reny, T.T. & Newman, B.J. (2021). The opinion-mobilising effect of social protest against police violence: evidence from the 2020 George Floyd protests. American political science review. 1–9. doi: 10.1017/S0003055421000460 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000460
Republic of Namibia. (1990). Article 121 establishment of the Prison Service. Government gazette: Windhoek.
Republic of Namibia. 1990. The Namibian Constitution Act 1 of 1990 as amended. Government gazette: Windhoek
Republic of Namibia. (2012). Namibia Correctional Service Act, Act 9 of 2012. Government Gazette: Windhoek.
Saeed, F., Mihan, R., Mousavi, S.Z., Reniers, R.L., Bateni, F.S., Alikhani, R., & Mousavi, S.B. (2020). A narrative review of stigma related to infectious disease outbreaks: What can be learned in the face of the covid-19 pandemic? Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 565919. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.565919 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.565919
Schack, M. (2016). Soldater i Europas gader. Et komparativt studie af de militære bidrag til national terrorbekæmpelse i udvalgte europæiske lande. Copenhagen: Center for Militære Studier.121. https://research.fak.dk/esploro/outputs/report/Soldater-i-Europas-gader-Et-komparativt-studie-af-de-militre-bidrag-til-national-terrorbekmpelse-i-udvalgte-europiske-lande/991816063303741[Accessed May 18, 2021].
Soest, C.V. & De Juan, A. (2018). Dealing with New Security Threats in Africa. (GIGA Focus Afrika, 2). Hamburg: GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies - Leibniz-Institut für Globale und Regionale Studien, Institut für Afrika-Studien. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-57825-6
Sperlich, M., Logan-Greene, P., & Finucane, A. (2021). Adopting a Trauma-Informed Approach to Gender-Based Violence Across the Life Course. In: Bradbury-Jones, C., Isham, L. (eds) Understanding Gender-Based Violence. Springer Cham. pp 185–202. https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-65006-3_12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65006-3_12
Taumang, Bello & Olutola. (2022). An exploratory study of a law enforcement model for vehicle speed in Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa. International Journal of Research in Business & Social Science 11(6) (2022), pp 572-583 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v11i6.1970
Tengpongsthor, W. (2017). Factors affecting the effectiveness of police performance in Metropolitan Police Bureau. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 38(1),39-44 https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.kjss.2016.07.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2016.07.001
The Namibian. (2020). The military’s role has become blurred. The Namibian, 04 September.
Vose, B., Miller, J.M. & Koskinen, S. (2020). Law enforcement manpower analysis: an enhanced calculation model. Policing: An International Journal, 43(3), pp. 511-523. https://doi.org/10. 1108/PIJPSM-02-2020-0026 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-02-2020-0026
Wade, P., Ndeyapo, N. & Akiser, P. (2012). The state of food insecurity in Windhoek, Namibia. African food security urban network. http://lib.riskreductionafrica .org/bitstream/handle/ 123456789/944/the%20state security.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Adewale A. Olutola, Kennedy K. Mabuku
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
For all articles published in IJRBS, copyright is retained by the authors. Articles are licensed under an open access Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, meaning that anyone may download and read the paper for free. In addition, the article may be reused and quoted provided that the original published version is cited. These conditions allow for maximum use and exposure of the work, while ensuring that the authors receive proper credit.
